Jerusalem

The Siloam Inscription and Hezekiah's tunnelFakapapau'i 'e he kelic. 700 BC

The tunnel described in one line of Kings exists, was cut in Hezekiah's era, and its diggers left a note inside it.

The seal impression of HezekiahLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapuc. 727–698 BC

A named king of Judah, sealing documents in Jerusalem — recovered from stratified excavation rather than bought on the market.

Dating the Siloam tunnel without the inscriptionFakapapau'i 'e he kelic. 700 BC

The tunnel under Jerusalem was cut around 700 BC — the years the Bible assigns to Hezekiah's waterworks — on evidence that owes nothing to either text.

Esarhaddon's building list — Manasseh of JudahLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapuc. 673 BC

Manasseh of Judah appears in two Assyrian kings' records as a vassal of Nineveh.

The Ketef Hinnom silver scrollsLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapulate 7th–early 6th century BC

Words still read in synagogues and churches today were being written on silver in Jerusalem before the city fell to Babylon.

The Arad ostraca — "the house of YHWH"Fakapapau'i 'e he kelic. 600 BC

Everyday army paperwork from a Judahite fort refers to the temple of YHWH and carries the same stock of personal names as the biblical books of the period.

The seal of Gemariah son of ShaphanLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapuc. 600 BC

A named official from the book of Jeremiah appears on a sealing dug out of the burnt debris of the city, in the right decade.

The Babylonian Chronicle — Jerusalem taken, 16 March 597 BC'Aho pau6th century BC

The first fall of Jerusalem is datable to a single day — 16 March 597 BC — from Babylon's own records, and the replacement of one king by another matches 2 Kings 24 exactly.

Two officials from Jeremiah 38, in clayLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapuc. 590 BC

Two men named together in a single verse of Jeremiah turn up as two sealings from the same excavation area.

The Lachish letters — "we are watching for the signals of Lachish"Fakapapau'i 'e he kelic. 588 BC

Letters from the last weeks of Judah, found in the ash of the gate they were written in, name the two cities Jeremiah names — one of them apparently already dark.

The Cyrus CylinderFakapapau'i 'e he kelic. 539 BC

The Persian repatriation policy behind the return from exile is documented in Cyrus's own words — the general policy, independently attested; the specific decree for Judah, only in the Bible.

The Elephantine papyri — Sanballat's sons, 407 BCLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapu5th century BC

Nehemiah's opponent Sanballat, governor of Samaria, and a high priest named Johanan both appear in Egyptian Jewish correspondence dated to 407 BC.

Herodium, Masada and the Herodian building programmeFakapapau'i 'e he keli37–4 BC

Herod the Great's reign is visible in stone across Judaea, on the scale the sources describe.

The Pool of Siloam, uncoveredFakapapau'i 'e he keli1st century BC–1st century AD

The pool named in John 9 exists, is the right size for a public gathering place, and was in use in the first century.

The Pool of Bethesda and its five porticoesFakapapau'i 'e he keli1st century BC–1st century AD

An architectural detail that looked like a symbolic flourish turned out to be an accurate description of a real building.

The temple warning stoneFakapapau'i 'e he keli1st century BC – 1st century AD

The barrier Acts turns on existed, with the death penalty attached, in exactly the words the crowd's accusation assumes.

The heel bone of a crucified manFakapapau'i 'e he keli1st century AD

Crucifixion in first-century Jerusalem is attested in the body of a victim — nailed, and then given ordinary burial.

The aqueduct Pilate paid for with temple moneyFakakikihi'i1st century BC – 1st century AD

The waterworks Josephus attributes to Pilate exist, on the route and the scale he gives.

The stepped street and Robinson's ArchFakapapau'i 'e he kelic. AD 20–31

The road pilgrims climbed from the pool to the temple, and the stair off the Temple Mount, are datable to the years the Gospels describe.

"To the place of trumpeting"Fakapapau'i 'e he keli1st century AD

A signposted corner of the Herodian temple, found in the debris of its demolition.

The Theodotus synagogue inscriptionFakapapau'i 'e he kelibefore AD 70

Synagogues used for scripture reading and teaching, and hosting travellers, existed in first-century Jerusalem — the institutional setting the Gospels and Acts take for granted.

The Caiaphas ossuaryFakakikihi'i1st century AD

The family, and very probably the man, who presided at Jesus' hearing is documented by an inscribed ossuary from an excavated Jerusalem tomb.

The "James" ossuaryFakakikihi'i1st century AD (inscription disputed)

Unprovenanced. The box is ancient; whether the reference to Jesus is ancient is disputed, and an acquittal in court did not settle it.

The Burnt House, AD 70Fakapapau'i 'e he keliAD 70

The destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 is preserved in a single burnt basement, down to the household's name and the last moments in it.

Josephus on James, the brother of JesusLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapuc. AD 93–94

A first-century Jewish historian, writing within living memory, refers to Jesus and to his brother James as ordinary matters of public record.

Josephus on Herod, the high priests and John the BaptistLave'i 'i tu'a mei he Tohi Tapuc. AD 93–94

A first-century Jewish historian independently describes the rulers, priests and executions the Gospels and Acts are set among — including the death of John the Baptist.

Roman roads and milestones in JudaeaFakapapau'i 'e he keli1st–3rd century AD

The road network that made the journeys of Acts ordinary is still on the ground, dated by its own inscriptions.

The letter of Mara bar SerapionFakakikihi'i1st–3rd century AD

A non-Christian Syriac writer refers to the execution of a Jewish "wise king" as a known event, and links it to the fall of the kingdom.